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Venus
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a terrestrial planet and is the closest in mass and size to its orbital neighbour Earth. Venus has by far the densest atmosphere of the terrestrial planets, composed mostly of carbon dioxide with a thick, global sulfuric acid cloud cover. At the surface it has a mean temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a pressure 92 times that of Earth's at sea level. These extreme conditions compress carbon dioxide into a supercritical state at Venus's surface. Internally, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust. Venus lacks an internal dynamo, and its weakly induced magnetosphere is caused by atmospheric interactions with the solar wind. Internal heat escapes through active volcanism,[21][22] resulting in resurfacing instead of plate tectonics. Venus is one of two planets in the Solar System, the other being Mercury, that have no moons.[23] Conditions perhaps favourable for life on Venus have been identified at its cloud layers. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in its history with a habitable environment,[24][25] before a runaway greenhouse effect evaporated any water and turned Venus into its present state.[26][27][28] The rotation of Venus has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the currents and drag of its atmosphere.[29] It takes 224.7 Earth days for Venus to complete an orbit around the Sun, and a Venusian solar year is just under two Venusian days long. The orbits of Venus and Earth are the closest between any two Solar System planets, approaching each other in synodic periods of 1.6 years. Venus is the easiest destination to reach from Earth because of the low delta-v needed, and is a useful gravity assist waypoint for interplanetary flights from Earth. Venus figures prominently in human culture and in the history of astronomy. Orbiting inferiorly (inside of Earth's orbit), it always appears within 47° of the Sun in our sky, as either a "morning star" or an "evening star". While Mercury also stays near the sun, Venus appears more prominent, since it is the third brightest object in Earth's sky after the Moon and the Sun.[30][31] In 1961, Venus became the target of the first interplanetary flight, Venera 1, but radio contact was lost before it arrived in May 1961. The first successful flyby was by NASA's Mariner 2 craft in 1962. This was followed by many essential interplanetary firsts, such as the first soft landing on another planet by Venera 7 in 1970. These probes demonstrated the extreme surface conditions, an insight that has informed predictions about global warming on Earth.[32] This finding ended the theories and then-popular science fiction notion about Venus being a habitable or inhabited planet (see Venus in fiction). The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by probes in the 20th century. Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks.[36] The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–91. There is evidence of extensive volcanism, and variations in the atmospheric sulphur dioxide may indicate that there are active volcanoes.[37][38] About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains.[39] Two highland "continents" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. The Maxwell Montes mountain range lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak is the highest point on Venus, 11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation.[40] The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek mythological goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area.[41] There is recent evidence of lava flow on Venus (2024),[42] such as flows on Sif Mons, a shield volcano, and on Niobe Planitia, a flat plain.[43] There are visible calderas. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, at 300–600 million years old.[44][45] Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "farra", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to 3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as "arachnoids"; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin.[46]
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