Environment
In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental protection laws in 1970.[108] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources.[109]
Japan ranks 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a country's commitment to environmental sustainability.[110] Japan is the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbon dioxide.[100] As the host and signatory of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[111] In 2020, the government of Japan announced a target of carbon-neutrality by 2050.[112] Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.[113]
Government and politics
Japan is a unitary state and constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited to a ceremonial role.[114] Executive power is instead wielded by the Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[115] Naruhito is the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his father Akihito upon his accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne in 2019.[114]
Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament.[114] It consists of a lower House of Representatives with 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upper House of Councillors with 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms.[116] There is universal suffrage for adults over 18 years of age,[117] with a secret ballot for all elected offices.[115] The prime minister as the head of government has the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers of State, and is appointed by the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet.[116] Shigeru Ishiba is Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the 2024 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election.[118] The broadly conservative Liberal Democratic Party has been the dominant party in the country since the 1950s, often called the 1955 System.[119]
Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[120] Since the late 19th century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established a civil code based on the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications.[121] The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world.[122] Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.[120] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[123]